The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Supplementary Material Obviously, the comprehensive nature and the wide range of simulated processes come at the expense of both model complexity and high input requirements. The latter is likely to be its main limitation, as far as some of the inputs (e.g., soil depth, L v distribution) are not easy to measure in the field. In any case, it is noteworthy to emphasize that OliveCan has not been primarily conceived as a decision support system for farmers, but as a research tool. Further Research

Two phenological stages are considered for the vegetative organs: (i) a dormant stage characterized by an absence of growth that is induced by chilling accumulation during autumn and (ii) a phase of active growth that starts in late winter, by the time average temperature is above a threshold. In relation to the reproductive growth, the date of flowering is determined with the two-phase model by De Melo-Abreu et al. (2004). Fruit growth is assumed to start after a given amount of thermal time is accumulated from the date of flowering and ceases when either maturity or the harvest date is reached. Gómez, J. A., Giráldez, J. V., and Fereres, E. (2001). Rainfall interception by olive trees in relation to leaf area. Agric. Water Manag. 49, 65–76. doi: 10.1016/S0378-3774(00)00116-5The model by García-Tejera et al. (2017a) is used to compute root water uptake ( RWU) from each layer in the two soil zones, canopy transpiration ( E p) and gross assimilation ( A′). By analogy with the Ohm’s law for electric circuits, the model assumes that water transport through the SPAC is driven by differences in water potential and hydraulic resistances. In this regard, three hydraulic resistances are considered: from the soil to the root-soil-interface ( R s), from the soil-root interface to the root xylem ( R r) and from the root xylem to the canopy ( R x). R s depends on soil texture, root length density ( L v), soil water content (𝜃) ( Gardner, 1960). R r is a function of L v and root permeability, the latter being mediated by 𝜃 ( Bristow et al., 1984) and temperature ( García-Tejera et al., 2016). Finally, R x is calculated from xylem anatomical traits and tree height. In the canopy, two leaf populations are considered (i.e., sunlit and shaded). For each one, gross assimilation ( A′), stomatal conductance ( g s), intercellular CO 2 concentration ( C i) and leaf water potential (Ψ l) are calculated iteratively, considering both the models by Farquhar et al. (1980) and Tuzet et al. (2003). In doing so, the environmental CO 2 concentration ( C a) is explicitly taken into account for calculating both A′ and g s on the one hand. On the other, the model requires information on the intercepted photosynthetically active radiation ( IPAR) as well as the sunlit and shaded fractions of the canopy. These inputs are provided by a simple geometric model of radiation interception which assumes a spheroidal shape for the crown and accounts for the shadowing from neighboring trees. Finally, E p is estimated from the imposed evaporation equation assuming that the canopy is coupled to the atmosphere, whereas RWU is deduced in each layer of each soil zone from the corresponding water potential differences and hydraulic resistances. Carbon Balance Component Pastor, M., García-Vila, M., Soriano, M. A., Vega, V., and Fereres, E. (2007). Productivity of olive orchards in response to tree density. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 82, 555–562. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01280 Connor, D. J. (2005). Adaptation of olive ( Olea europaea L.) to water-limited environments. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 56, 1181–1189. doi: 10.1071/AR05169 Considering all the simulations together, the maximum simulated oil yield was 358 g m -2 (Table 1), which is comparable to the maximum values estimated by the model of Morales et al. (2016) and to available experimental data ( Villalobos et al., 2006; Pastor et al., 2007). Simulated values of radiation use efficiency for oil production (i.e., the amount of oil produced per unit of intercepted PAR) averaged over biennia ranged between 0.17 and 0.10 g MJ -1. These estimates are within the range of variation found by Villalobos et al. (2006) across a wide range of commercial orchards in Southern Spain. Want more olive appetizers? Try my Olive Dip and Olive Cheese Ball! What to Serve with Blue Cheese Stuffed Olives

Testi, L., and Villalobos, F. J. (2009). New approach for measuring low sap velocities in trees. Agric. For. Meteorol. 149, 730–734. doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2008.10.015 Once opened, transfer contents to a non-metallic container, cover, refrigerate and consume within 6 days. Storage Values of GC, LAD, and R zx required to initialize the model were taken from measurements of tree silhouettes. A record of Y dry of the year preceding simulations was also considered. Initial L v values were taken from records measured by Moriana (2001) for the trees of Experiment II. Experiment II

Conflict of Interest Statement

A dry martini! Ha, ok so you’re having a party and including these stuffed olives on the menu? Here are a few other party appetizers that would pair nicely with these blue cheese olives. Bustan, A., Avni, A., Lavee, S., Zipori, I., Yeselson, Y., Schaffer, A., et al. (2011). Role of carbohydrate reserves in yield production of intensively cultivated oil olive ( Olea europaea L.) trees. Tree Physiol. 31, 519–530. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpr036

This section provides an overview of the main features and processes within OliveCan. An in-depth description of the model, along with its equations and scientific rationale is given as Supplementary Material. The code of OliveCan was written in Visual Basic 6.0. Fernández, J. E., Moreno, F., Cabrera, F., Arrue, J. L., and Martin-Aranda, J. (1991). Drip irrigation, soil characteristics and the root activity of olive trees. Plant Soil 133, 239–251. doi: 10.1007/BF00009196

References

López-Bernal, A., García-Tejera, O., Vega, V. A., Hidalgo, J. C., Testi, L., Orgaz, F., et al. (2015). Using sap flow measurements to estimate net assimilation in olive trees under different irrigation regimes. Irrig. Sci. 33, 357–366. doi: 10.1007/s00271-015-0471-7 Verhoef, A., McNaughton, K. G., and Jacobs, A. F. G. (1997). A parameterization of momentum roughness length and displacement height for a wide range of canopy densities. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 1, 81–91. doi: 10.5194/hess-1-81-1997 Senescence of leaves and fine roots are simulated using a similar approach to that in the model by Morales et al. (2016). OliveCan takes also into account the conversion of shoots into branches when they exceed 3 years-old. Besides that, the model considers some of the effects of frost events and heat stress. Frost damage is simulated by assuming that a fraction of the standing leaves is defoliated when minimum air temperature falls below a certain temperature threshold. A similar approach is used for simulating the effect of extremely high temperatures during flowering on fruit set: when maximum air temperature exceeds a given threshold, a reduction in the final FN is triggered.